Event Risk management (Summer Olympics in Brazil) Assignment

Event Risk management (Summer Olympics in Brazil) - Assignment Example Moreover, Al-Qaeda continues its underground operations. In the meantime, it is hard to know where these groups will hit next. Brazil is one of the countries with the highest number of Christian. Majority of the local population are Catholics. Terrorist groups have been using the religion aspect to try and widen the gap between the Christians and Muslim. Olympics attract people from different parts of the world. These are people who emanates from different cultural and religious backgrounds (Liotta & Miskel, 2012). This provides a platform for the terrorist group to stage an attack in order to drive a message to the whole word. The Olympics games are attended by high-level dignitaries who come from different parts of the world. Therefore, if the terrorists are able to stage an attack in such games, they can bring the whole world into a standstill due to the number of people who are likely to be affected. As a result, the organizing committee will be faced with a major problem of ensu ring that security of all those who will attend this noble event is guaranteed. Rio de Janeiro is a city that has one of the largest populations of people living in slums. In favela, drug abuse is a common practice. These are areas that are so insecure. Olympics will bring a lot of tourists in the country. Many of these people are likely to spend their time in tourist destinations such as beaches. The residents in favela are likely to take up this opportunity to rob these tourists as majority of them believe that they will have carried with them a lot of wealth. Currently, the government is already strained having spent a lot of money to host the World cup. In addition, the security apparatus are strained by the wave of violence and robbery in different parts of Brazil. Therefore, the number that can be committed to secure the areas that are likely to be visited by the tourists is very low. Therefore, problems of robbery, murder, rape, etc are likely to

The Mind Is the Best Medicine Essay Example for Free

The Mind Is the Best Medicine Essay The mind is the most powerful tool a man can use. The body is nothing without the mind. It gives us power to have a wild imagination and have infinite ideas. If the mind has delightful ideas, your body will survive and prosper. If the mind has immoral ideas, your body will stress and decay over time. Although the mind is very powerful, it is up to the person to control it. In As A Man Thinketh, James Allen elaborates on how the body is the servant to the mind. He also states how good thoughts are key to achieving a healthy body. Man can achieve prodigious health in the mind, and body, by simply having pure thoughts. Disease and health, like circumstances, are rooted in thought. Sickly thoughts will express themselves through a sickly body (Allen12). Thoughts are the foundation of the body (Chu). Our body works off of what we think and feel everyday. If you have negative thoughts, your body will be very ill. A healthy body shall not have immortal thoughts. A healthy body has positive thoughts that pass through the body. The people who live in fear for disease will usually get it. This is because of the negative thoughts running through the body affects your health. Anxiety will completely demoralize the body (Cramer), which will give disease a great chance to attack. While impure thoughts will shut down the nervous system. Strong, pure, and happy thoughts build up the body in vigor and grace. The body is a delicate and plastic instrument, which responds readily to the thoughts by which it is impressed, and habits of thought will produce their own effects, good or bad, upon it (Allen 12). Pure thoughts will clean the body of anxiety. Whenever thoughts are pure, it detoxes the body of all the negativity. The results of pure thinking will only shed good results. When the mind is pure, the body is healthy. Men will continue to have impure blood as long as they propagate unclean thoughts. Negative thoughts only harm the body, which will cause harm in the future. Change of diet will not help a man who won’t changes his thoughts (Allen). Although diet is important to stay healthy, thought is much stronger than food. A man who eats ruthless will also have impure thoughts. Men who can’t control what they eat, usually have trouble controlling their mind. If you can’t control your stomach, you certainly wont be able to control your thoughts. Temptation is very strong, but you mind is even stronger. When a man makes his thoughts pure, he has no longer desire for impure food. If you would perfect your body, guard your mind. If you would renew your body, beautify your mind. Thoughts of malice, envy, disappointment, despondency, rob the body of its health and grace. A sour face does not come by chance; it is made by sour thoughts (Allen12). Having a thick face is also important for a healthy body and mind. You shouldn’t let others get in your way of pure thoughts. Envy is the cause of impure thoughts. You shouldn’t envy a person, bur rather succeed and surpass the person. Disappointment also causes impure thoughts to the body. You shouldn’t be disappointed but rather appreciative of what you have. All of these thoughts can be controlled by the mind. Having these feelings will cause depression, which means you can’t control your thoughts. Impure thoughts will slowly harm the body causing major damage to the mind. There is no physician like cheerful thought for dissipating the ills of the body; there is no comforter to compare with goodwill for dispersing the shadows of grief and sorrow. To live continually in thoughts of ill-will, cynicism, suspicion, and envy, is to be confined in a self-made prison-hole. But to think well of all, to be cheerful with all, and to patiently learn to find the good in all such unselfish thoughts are the very portals of heaven; and to dwell day by day in thoughts of peace toward every creature will bring abounding peace to their possessor (Allen 12). You don’t need a doctor to tell you how to use your mind. You should be your own doctor, because you are the one controlling your thoughts. Positive thoughts will keep you away from the doctor. If you have corrupted thoughts, you are just digging a whole for yourself (Cramer). If you have constant impure thoughts, the body will be under major stress. When the stress builds up so does all the impure thoughts. The body does not function efficiently with these impure ideas. Causing harm to the mind and body, one shall get rid of impure thoughts. They who have no central purpose in their life fall an easy prey to petty worries, fears, troubles, and self-pitying, all of which lead, just as surely as deliberately planned sins (though by a different route), to failure, unhappiness, and loss, for weakness cannot persist in a power-evolving universe (Allen 14). People who don’t know what to do in life will have impure thoughts. One who thinks of small problems will have major anxiety causing harm to the body. If you can’t control your thoughts, little things will tend to bother you. Even though these problems are not major, it can lead you to bigger problems. These impure thoughts ill only lead you to failure. Having small problems on your mind will only cause you to think of more problems that you already have. When all the impure thoughts build up, it will be very difficult to have any pure thoughts in your mind. A man should conceive of a legitimate purpose in his heart, and set out to accomplish it. He should mak e this purpose the centralizing point of his thoughts. It may take the form of a spiritual ideal, or it may be a worldly object, according to his nature at the time being; but whichever it is, he should steadily focus his thought forces upon the object which he has set before him. He should make this purpose his supreme duty, and should devote himself to its attainment, not allowing his thoughts to wander away into ephemeral fancies, longings, and imaginings (Allen 14). You are the one controlling yours thoughts. Another person should not be the creator of yours thoughts. You should think deeply of your thoughts and not let them go to waste. The mind is very powerful and the thoughts are its artwork. You should take your time in making a great piece of artwork. If your thoughts are impure, the art will come out with dark colors. If your thoughts are pure, your art will come out with extravagant colors. You should have a legitimate purpose for your ideas. Once a great thought has come to you, you should set forth and try to accomplish it. Thoughts are just in your head if you don’t do anything about it. The important part is accomplishing your pure thoughts. With great accomplishments comes a great thought. A man can only rise, conquer, and achieve greatness by uplifting his thoughts. Thinking positive is very important because it gives you a sense of direction. If a person has negative thoughts, they usually wont come up with many pure thoughts. Negative thinking can harm the body and mind to look at the downside of things. Positive thinking on the other hand, is essential to pure ideas. A positive thinker has a pathway to pure ideas. You cannot achieve a lot of things with negative thinking. Men will remain weak, and abject, and miserable by refusing to lift up his thoughts. The body is nothing without the mind. Our mind is the creator of our thoughts. Whether our thoughts are pure or impure; our body does not function properly without our mind. To sustain a healthy lifestyle, one should have pure thoughts. Your body is not healthy if your thoughts are not pure. Strong, pure, and happy thoughts build up the body in vigor and grace. The body is a delicate and plastic instrument, which responds readily to the thoughts by which it is impressed, and habits of thought will produce their own effects, good or bad, upon it (Allen 12). Impure ideas will only cause harm to the body. Impure thoughts lead the body to undergo stress, which leads to disease. One should not worry so much because harm will come to the ones who worry most. Anxiety will only cause harm, and ruin your positive thoughts. Having pure ideas is important to staying healthy. Man can achieve prodigious health in the mind, and body, by simply having pure thoughts. Works Cited Allen, James. As A Man Thinketh. White Plains, NY: Peter Pauper Press, 1970. Chu, Chin-Ning. Thick Face Black Heart. NY,NY: Warner Books , 1994. Cramer, Michael. Power moments: positive motivation and powerful inspiration. Brentwood, TN: JM Press, 2002. Deci, Edward L. Why we do what we do: the dynamics of personal autonomy. New York: Putnams Sons, 1995.

Having Our Say by Sadie and Bessie Delany Essay -- Having Our Say Lite

Having Our Say by Sadie and Bessie Delany The social, cultural and political history of America as it affects the life course of American citizens became very real to us as the Delany sisters, Sadie and Bessie, recounted their life course spanning a century of living in their book "Having Our Say." The Delany sisters’ lives covered the period of their childhood in Raleigh, North Carolina, after the "Surrender" to their adult lives in Harlem, New York City during the roaring twenties, to a quiet retirement in suburban, New York City, as self-styled "maiden ladies." At the ages of 102 and 104, these ladies have lived long enough to look back over a century of their existence and appreciate the value of a good family life and companionship, also to have the last laugh that in spite of all their struggles with racism, sexism, political and economic changes they triumphed (Having Our Say). Of all the ten children of Henry and Nanny Delany, Sadie and Bessie developed a bond of companionship from childhood to the end of their lives. They were even able to complete each other’s thoughts, because they shared what Karl Mannheim described as a "common location in the social and historical process" that "predisposes them for a certain characteristic mode of thought and experience." They therefore, corroborated some of Mannheim’s discussions on "location" and its effect on a generation (Karl Mannheim, The Sociological Problem of Generations, pp. 290-91). Further, throughout the book, Sadie and Bessie continuously reminds the reader of the strong influence family life had on their entire lives. Their father and mother were college educated and their father was the first black Episcopal priest and vice principal at St. Augustine Co... ...ieth century America. The majority of blacks during that era, did not possess the family status and class structure that surrounds the Delany sisters and, therefore, it would virtually be impossible for them to succeed at the level the Delanys did. But the Delanys still had their share of personal troubles which was influenced by public issues but they survived and in their own unique, humorous way lived to say: We’ve outlived those old rebby boys! That’s one way to beat them! That’s justice! Works Cited Delany, S., Delany, A., and Hearth, A. Having Our Say. New York: 1967. Mannheim, K., Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd. 1952. Bennett, L. Jr. A History of Black America. Sixth edition, Penguin Books: 1993. Franklin, J., Moss, A. Jr. From Slavery to Freedom. Seventh edition, McGraw Hill, Inc.: 1994.

Chaucers Canterbury Tales - Enslavement and Freedom in the Knights Ta

Enslavement and Freedom in the Knight's Tale  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Knight's Tale, Palamon and Arcite's lives are filled with adversity  and enslavement .   Not only do they live in   physical imprisonment, bound as prisoners of war in a tower, but they fall into Love's imprisonment, which leads them to suffer the decrees of cruel classical gods .   Cooper writes that there "can be no moral or metaphysical justice in the different fates that befall them; yet one dies wretchedly wounded, while the other lives out his life with Emily 'with alle blisse' " (76). One might compare their destinies with that of Jacob and Esau: one is blessed, and the other cursed in order that the providence of God might stand . This essay will argue (1) that even though Palamon and Arcite are enslaved as prisoners of war, prisoners of love, and prisoners of Saturn's decree, both knights are still responsible for their actions, and (2) that Arcite's death brings unity and restores order in Athens.    Palamon and Arcite are introduced into the tale as the only two surviving knights in Creon's army.   Once found by the scavengers, they are brought before Theseus and he sends them to "dwellen in prisoun/Perpetuelly" (1023-4). It is through their physical imprisonment in the "chembre an heigh" (1065) that leads them to 6xsee Emily and to fall into Love's imprisonment.   But Love's imprisonment works on Palamon and Arcite in different ways.   Arcite "falls in love with her irresistibly, by natural necessity   . . .   [whereas for Palamon, the] love of Emelye is a matter of choice rather than nature, as is shown by his repeated demand that Arcite simply stop loving her (1142-43, 1593-95, 1731)" (Roney 62).   But even though their view of love is different, they ar... ...    Elbow, Peter. "How Chaucer Transcends Oppositions in the Knight's Tale." Chaucer Review. Vol. 7. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1972.    Finalyson, John. "The Knight's Tale: The Dialogue Of Romance, Epic, And   Philosophy." Chaucer Review. Vol. 27. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1992.    Frost, William. "An Interpretation of Chaucer's Knight's Tale." Chaucer Criticism. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard Schoeck. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1960.    Miller, Robert. Chaucer: Sources and Backgrounds. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.    Roney, Lois. Chaucer's Knight's Tale and Theories of Scholastic Psychology.  Ã‚   Tampa: University of South Florida Press, 1990.    Spearing, A.C. The Knight's Tale. London: Cambridge University Press, 1966.    Chaucer's Canterbury Tales - Enslavement and Freedom in the Knight's Ta Enslavement and Freedom in the Knight's Tale  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   In the Knight's Tale, Palamon and Arcite's lives are filled with adversity  and enslavement .   Not only do they live in   physical imprisonment, bound as prisoners of war in a tower, but they fall into Love's imprisonment, which leads them to suffer the decrees of cruel classical gods .   Cooper writes that there "can be no moral or metaphysical justice in the different fates that befall them; yet one dies wretchedly wounded, while the other lives out his life with Emily 'with alle blisse' " (76). One might compare their destinies with that of Jacob and Esau: one is blessed, and the other cursed in order that the providence of God might stand . This essay will argue (1) that even though Palamon and Arcite are enslaved as prisoners of war, prisoners of love, and prisoners of Saturn's decree, both knights are still responsible for their actions, and (2) that Arcite's death brings unity and restores order in Athens.    Palamon and Arcite are introduced into the tale as the only two surviving knights in Creon's army.   Once found by the scavengers, they are brought before Theseus and he sends them to "dwellen in prisoun/Perpetuelly" (1023-4). It is through their physical imprisonment in the "chembre an heigh" (1065) that leads them to 6xsee Emily and to fall into Love's imprisonment.   But Love's imprisonment works on Palamon and Arcite in different ways.   Arcite "falls in love with her irresistibly, by natural necessity   . . .   [whereas for Palamon, the] love of Emelye is a matter of choice rather than nature, as is shown by his repeated demand that Arcite simply stop loving her (1142-43, 1593-95, 1731)" (Roney 62).   But even though their view of love is different, they ar... ...    Elbow, Peter. "How Chaucer Transcends Oppositions in the Knight's Tale." Chaucer Review. Vol. 7. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1972.    Finalyson, John. "The Knight's Tale: The Dialogue Of Romance, Epic, And   Philosophy." Chaucer Review. Vol. 27. No. 2. Ed. Robert Frank. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University, 1992.    Frost, William. "An Interpretation of Chaucer's Knight's Tale." Chaucer Criticism. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard Schoeck. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1960.    Miller, Robert. Chaucer: Sources and Backgrounds. New York: Oxford University Press, 1977.    Roney, Lois. Chaucer's Knight's Tale and Theories of Scholastic Psychology.  Ã‚   Tampa: University of South Florida Press, 1990.    Spearing, A.C. The Knight's Tale. London: Cambridge University Press, 1966.   

Affirmative Action Racism And Discrimination Essay

America is called â€Å"the land of opportunity† however, most of the countries citizens are not able to enjoy the benefits that the title provides. Being able to accomplish scholastic goals, attend a four-year college, and to have an influential career, are not obtainable for many, even though they work hard. Our nation has long been plagued by an ugly occurrence. An occurrence that finds its origins at the very core of our society. It is a problem familiar in some ways to all of us regardless of which side of the argument we find ourselves, and yet it remains unsolved. To verify that a problem exists, as Beverly, Tatum explains, we must first understand, racism as a system of advantage based on race, and white privilege as unjust enrichment through racial oppression,(Tatum,pg 10, 115). Next we must look at the steps taken to level the playing field of advanced racial groups. In America racism and discrimination is a cruel reality. For centuries now, local, state, and federal governments have been proactive in protecting or expanding the system of racial discrimination. White government officials and programs have often favored the racial and political-economic interests of white Americans. Government programs historically provided much access to homesteading land and numerous other valuable resources exclusively to white Americans (Feagin, 2010, p. 143). In an affords toward concern for equality, Affirmative action was created. It was designed to counteract the effect that discriminatory practices have embedded in the American culture. Affirmative action refers to policies that take factors including â€Å"race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or national origin† into consideration in order to benefit an under represented group â€Å"in areas of employment, education, and business†, usually justified as countering the effects o f a history of discrimination. The term â€Å"affirmative action† was first used in the United States in Executive Order 10925 and was signed by President John F. Kennedy on 6 March 1961; it was used to promote actions that achieve non-discrimination. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson enacted Executive Order 11246 which required government employers to take â€Å"affirmative action† to hire without regard to race, religion and national origin. In 1968, gender was added to the anti-discrimination list. A lively debate with sparks flying within racial group exists over the importance of the Affirmative action process. Some would argue that affirmative action undeservingly rewards minorities, and takes away from whites in effect causing reverse discrimination. Not long ago, Senator Bob Dole, a Republican presidential candidate, spoke in a television interview of â€Å"displaced† white men who compete with black workers because of affirmative action. He said that he was not sure that â€Å"people in America† (he meant â€Å"whites†) should be paying a price for discrimination that occurred â€Å"before they were born†. (Feagin, 2010, p. 15). Taking this evidence into consideration, should this influence the direction taken regarding affirmative action? University of California Regent Ward Connerly believes that affirmative action is used as a crutch that is ruining the relationship between blacks and whites. If this were true, would this be a good reason to halt government involvement in affirmative action programs? Would people identify these issues and take steps to make changes? Historically this has not been the case. Affirmative action programs have been successful in making social change. Minorities that have previously been excluded from opportunities have been afforded opportunities to achieve through affirmative action programs. Initially, affirmative action was a policy primarily aimed at correcting institutional discrimination where decisions, policies and procedures that are not necessarily explicitly discriminatory have had a negative impact on people of color. Affirmative action policies address and redress systematic economic and political discrimination against any group of people that are underrepresented or have a history of being discriminated against in particular institutions. Beneficiaries of these programs have included white men and women, people with disabilities, and poor working class people, but their primary emphasis has been on addressing racial discrimination (Kivel, P) If our goal is to eradicate discriminatory practices, then our government must continue to mandate legislation, and fund programs to address these issues. Following this conclusion it is clear to see that all evidence supports the benefits of affirmative action. What we have before us is a society with the possibility to make great strides in regards to changing the system of inequality. It is important that government lead in the direction that supports affirmative action programs. Government needs to see this as the biggest problem on their social agenda, and it will take a significant effort to mandate change, but the benefit for everyone will be extraordinary. References Feagin, J. (2010). Racist America Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations New York: Routledge Press. Tatum, Beverly Daniel. (2003). †Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? New York: Basic Books. Executive Order 11246. (2012, July 2). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17:23, October 30, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Executive_Order_11246&oldid=500344831 Montgomery, A. (2000, march 27). A â€Å"poison† divides us, salon.com, Kivel, P. (1997, November,17) Affirmative Action Works! Motion Magazine

Hypno-psychotherapy techniques can be extremely useful not only in the context of psychological treatment but also for medical, surgical and dental treatment. The WritePass Journal

Hypno-psychotherapy techniques can be extremely useful not only in the context of psychological treatment but also for medical, surgical and dental treatment. 1-Introduction Hypno-psychotherapy techniques can be extremely useful not only in the context of psychological treatment but also for medical, surgical and dental treatment. 1-Introduction2-The history of hypnosis2.1 Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815):2.2 Marquis de Puysegur (1751-1825):2.3 Abbe de Faria (1756-1819:3-The history of hypnosis used in surgery3.1 John Elliotson (1791-1868):   3.2 James Esdaile (1808-1859):   3.3 James Braid (1795-1860):   4-The decline of hypnosis in surgery4.1 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939):4.2 Behaviourism:   4.3 Cognitive Therapy:   4.4 Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy:5-Leading names in hypno-psycotherapy   5.1 Alfred Adler (1870-1937):   5.2 Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961):   5.3 Milton Erickson (1901-1980):   5.4 Friedrich (Frederick) Salomon Perls (1893-1970):5.5 Carl Rogers (1902–1987):6-Techniques used in practice6.1 Hypnosis:   6.2 Suggestion:   6.3 Paradoxical injunction:6.4 Distraction:6.5 Time distortion:6.6 Hypnotic suggestion for pain releif:6.7 Displacement:6.8 Dissociation:6.9 Systematic desensitisation:   7-The application of hypno-psychotherapy in medicine and dentistry7.1 Treatment in surg ery:7.2 Treatment for cancer patients:   7.3 Treatment in obstetrics and gynaecology:   7.4 Treatment in dentistry:   8-Conclusion8.1 Modern day acceptability:   8.2 Advantages and disadvantages:   8.3 Future possibilities:   Reference:Related 1-Introduction Hypno-psychotherapy techniques can be extremely useful not only in the context of psychological treatment but also for medical, surgical and dental treatment.   Techniques can be used to control acute and chronic pain which can help patients during for example, childbirth, minor and major operations, dental treatments, or simply to help with pain associated in minor ailments such as back pain, headaches and irritable bowel syndrome. Not only can techniques be useful in medicine and dentistry for pain relief   as described above but can also be used to deal with the anxiety connected with varying procedures and help with the patients state of mind which in turn can speed healing.   This can be of great advantage before, during and after any surgery or treatment. In this dissertation I would like to discuss in more depth the use of hypno-psychotherapy techniques specifically in medicine and dentistry firstly looking at the history of hypnosis, leading names in the integration of psychotherapeutic techniques over the years looking at their theories, describe the varying techniques which can be useful in medicine and dentistry and look at how these can be applied in practice as a qualified hypno-psychotherapist.  Ã‚   In conclusion there will be a discussion of any advantages, disadvantages and limitations of the use of these techniques and a brief look into future possibilities.    2-The history of hypnosis    The origins of hypnosis can extend back to ancient Greece where there were temples devoted to Aesculapius, the Greek god of healing.   In these temples which were built in pleasant surroundings usually near water, there would be music prayer and incantations.   Sleeping patients believed the Gods were visiting them.   However, the true precursor of hypnosis begins with the practice of mesmerism.    2.1 Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815): A German physician and astrologist, who invented what he called animal magnetism and other spiritual forces often grouped together as mesmerism. He was the first person to devise a system which could induce a trance.   The evolution of Mesmers ideas and practices led Scottish surgeon James Braid, later discussed in section 3.3, to develop hypnosis in 1842.   Mesmer hypothesized that the force of animal magnetism had to do with the movement of the sun, planets and stars.   He would use magnets in an attempt to heal his patients. 2.2 Marquis de Puysegur (1751-1825): A former student of Mesmer, described his patients in a state of artificial somnambulism which differed from the mesmeric trance.   He was the first practitioner to identify the importance of psychological factors in illness and healing which lead to recognition of these factors in mesmerism and hypnosis.   His more patient centred approach was later used by Freud, discussed in section 4.1 in the psychoanalytic technique of free-association and indeed in many techniques used today. 2.3 Abbe de Faria (1756-1819: Unlike Mesmer who claimed hypnosis was mediated by animal magnetism, Faria believed it worked purely by the power of suggestion.   Also unlike Puysegur’s somnambulism, Faria believed this state was lucid sleep.   He was the first to document individual differences, the first to state that the process would only happen if the subject was susceptible and not solely down to the powers of the mesmerist and also the first to use the verbal suggestion of sleep for his induction instead of using objects such as magnets etc. 3-The history of hypnosis used in surgery    Up until the 1940’s when hypnosis was still known as mesmerism, medical and dental surgeries were performed without anaesthetic because it was not available at this time.   John Elliotson, a professor of practical medicine, and James Esdaile, a medical officer reported a large number of surgeries performed painlessly, with the mesmeric trance as the only form of pain relief used. 3.1 John Elliotson (1791-1868):   Senior Physician at University College Hospital in London and Professor of the practice of Medicine at the University of London, Elliotson was a student of phrenology and mesmerism.   He hoped that his development of mesmerism would lead to new therapeutic applications in medicine and advocated its use in surgery.   When the New Orleans Medical and Surgical Journal asserted that, compared to ether, mesmerism could perform a thousand times greater wonders and without any of the dangers [2] British Medical Surgical Journal, (1846).   Elliotson agreed, however lost his chair because of his advocation of mesmerism in surgery. 3.2 James Esdaile (1808-1859):   Best known as a Scottish surgeon and pioneer in the use of hypnosis for surgical anaesthesia, Esdaile used mesmerism with patients at a British medical facility in India.   He performed over three hundred surgeries using hypnotic techniques including radical operations such as tumour removal and amputations. At that time the mortality rate for major operations by fellow surgeons was 50%.   In 1961 Esdaile’s mortality rate averaged 5%. 3.3 James Braid (1795-1860):   A Scottish physician and surgeon, specialising in eye and muscular conditions, Braid was an important and influential pioneer of hypnotism and hypnotherapy.   The three main contributions Braid made were the introduction of the term â€Å"Neurypnology† or nervous sleep, secondly his induction technique now known as â€Å"Braidism† or the Braid technique where the subject fixes their gaze on a point above eye level until the eyes close and the subject enters hypnosis, and thirdly his theories suggesting hypnosis was caused by visual fatigue.   It is from Braids influential work that others derived the term hypnosis in the 1880s although he himself did not use this term.   Similar to how techniques are used today, Braid believed that patients should be considered on an individual basis and hypnotic suggestion should be used in conjunction with other medical and chemical techniques and not as a sole cure. â€Å"Although Braid believed that hypnotic suggestion was a valuable remedy in functional nervous disorders, he did not regard it as a rival to other forms of treatment, nor wish in any way to separate its practice from that of medicine in general. He held that whoever talked of a universal remedy was either a fool or a knave: similar diseases often arose from opposite pathological conditions, and the treatment ought to be varied accordingly. He objected being called a hypnotist; he was, he said, no more a hypnotic than a castor-oil doctor.†Ã‚  Ã‚   [3] John Bramwell, 1910. 4-The decline of hypnosis in surgery    Despite both Dr. Elliotson and Dr. Esdailes successes they were condemned by their fellow doctors.  Ã‚   Also the introduction of chloroform and esther brought about the decline in interest of using mesmerism as anaesthia. These, among other chemical procedures, could be used by every surgeon, on everyone patient, were less time-consuming and required little-to-no knowledge of human psychology and therefore chemical anaesthetics became regularly used in dentistry, surgery and obstetrics.   Another reason for the decline of hypnosis was the rise of behaviourism.   Before looking at these schools of thought it is important to mention that hypnotherapy is still a very useful tool if required for simple relaxation therapy, however, in order to be of use for the more complex psychological and physical conditions presented in both Medical and Dental procedures, psychotherapeutic techniques must also be applied.   It is by the integration of these varying schools of thought which wi ll be discussed, and adaption of their techniques that hypno-psychotherapy can be very useful in medicine and dentistry today. 4.1 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Freud, a neurologist and psychiatrist wrote of his rejection of hypnosis in Studies of Hysteria written with Joseph Breuer in 1895.   Although Freudian theory has been criticised by many has regardless been studied and continuously developed for more than forty years.   Freud is best known for his theories on the structure of the mind, levels of consciousness, instinct theory, psychosexual stages and the defence mechanisms of repression and tranference.   He also developed the clinical practice of psychoanalysis for treating patients through dialogue, known as free-association and the use of interpretation of dreams and fantasies as sources of insight into the unconscious.  Ã‚   Freud also used regression hypnotherapy which was sometimes known as hypnoanalysis, analytic hypnotherapy, or psychodynamic hypnotherapy. Freud was the founder of the modern day psychotherapeutic interview and not only this but many other aspects of Freudian theories and techniques are integrated and applied to patients in practices today. 4.2 Behaviourism:   The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors can be described scientifically without taking into account internal physiological events or looking at theories of hypothetical constructs such as the mind and it is thought that all behaviour is learned. â€Å"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-cheif, and, yes, even beggar-man and theif, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.†[4] J B Watson, 1931.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Behavioural techniques remain implemented by psychotherapists today.   These techniques are based on the phenomena of classic conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning.   It is believed that behaviour can be improved by the use of certain techniques, such as altering an individuals behaviours and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behaviour and/or the reduction of maladaptive behaviour through its extinction, punishment and/or therapy. Systematic desensitisation is a technique based on classic conditioning which can be of great use to medical and dental procedures to deal with anxiety which will be discussed in greater detail in section 4.3 Cognitive Therapy:   One of the major pioneers of CT was American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck.   The pure cognitive therapies focus on changing certain thought patterns. The theory is that the way we perceive situations influences how we feel emotionally, and so by changing thoughts, then behaviours will also change.   The basic procedures in CT are educating patients with information about the nature of certain feelings, e.g. panic and anxiety, identifying salient thoughts, challenging the thoughts and beliefs, identifying distortions, cognitive restructuring and testing reality. Albert Ellis was the other major pioneer of cognitive therapy who developed Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT), a therapeutic approach that stimulates emotional growth and teaches people to replace self-defeating thoughts and actions with more effective ones. REBT gives individuals the power to change the unhealthy behaviors that interfere with their ability to enjoy life. 4.4 Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) aims to help manage problems by changing how the individuals think and act.   CBT encourages talking about how clients think about their selves, the world and other people and focuses on how actions can affect thoughts and feelings.   By talking, CBT can help change thoughts (‘cognitive’) and actions (‘behaviour’). Unlike other talking treatments, such as Freud’s free association, CBT focuses on the problems and difficulties in the here and now, rather than issues from the past. It looks for practical ways to improve the state of mind on a daily basis. 5-Leading names in hypno-psycotherapy      Traditional hypnotherapy has since integrated many more psychotherapeutic approaches such as Freud’s from many other varying schools of thought.   Examples of these influences are Adler and Jung’s theories, Erickson hypnotherapy, Fritz Perls Gestalt therapy and Carl Rogers Humanistic approach.   These historical influences combined with techniques used in cognitive and behavioural therapy resulted in the integrative approach, termed hypno-psychotherapy.   These techniques are often applied in order to modify a subjects behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development. 5.1 Alfred Adler (1870-1937):   An Austrian medical doctor and psychologist, was the founder of the school of Individual Psychology.   In collaboration with Sigmund Freud and a small group of Freuds colleagues, Adler was among the co-founders of the psychoanalytic movement as a core member of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society. He was the first major figure to break away from psychoanalysis to form an independent school of psychotherapy and personality theory.   Adler’s main theoretical contributions are the importance of birth order in the formation of personality, the impact of neglect or pampering on child development, the notion of a self perfecting drive within human beings, and the idea that one must study and treat the patient as a whole person†. 5.2 Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961):   A Swiss psychiatrist and the founder of analytical psychology.   Though not the first to analyze dreams, he has become perhaps one of the most well known pioneers in the field of dream analysis. He considered the process of individuation necessary for a person to become whole. This is a psychological process of integrating the conscious with the unconscious while still maintaining conscious autonomy.   Individuation was the central concept of analytical psychology.   Many pioneering psychological concepts were originally proposed by Jung, including the Archetype, the Collective Unconcious, the Complex, and synchronicity.   Jung believed individuals had psychological types which were known as Jungian Typology.   A popular psychometric instrument, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), has been principally developed from Jungs theories. 5.3 Milton Erickson (1901-1980):   An American psychiatrist and psychologist, Erickson developed many ideas and techniques in hypnosis that were very different from what was commonly practiced. His style, commonly referred to as Ericksonian Hypnosis, has greatly influenced many modern schools of hypnosis. He was an important influence on neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), which was in part based upon his working methods.   He is noted for his approach to the unconscious mind as creative and solution-generating.   He is known for using the handshake induction, uses indirect and confusion techniques and also takes into account factors such as resistance. 5.4 Friedrich (Frederick) Salomon Perls (1893-1970): Better known as Fritz Perls, he was a German born psychiatrist and psychotherapist of Jewish descent.   Perls coined the term Gestalt Therapy to identify the form of psychotherapy that he developed with his wife Laura Perls in the 1940s and 1950s.   The core of the Gestalt Therapy process is enhanced awareness of sensation, perception, bodily feelings, emotion and behavior, in the present moment. Relationship is emphasized, along with contact between the self, its environment, and the other.   Gestalt therapy is firmly rooted in the philosophies of Existentialism and Phenomenology and can be described as a holistic and psychodynamic therapy. 5.5 Carl Rogers (1902–1987): An American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach to psychology. Rogers is widely considered to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research.   Rogers developed his person-centered therapy theories to understanding personality and human relationships which resulted in its wide application in psychotherapy and counseling.   His techniques make use of Empathy, Congruence and unconditional positive regard and he believes free will and self responsibility are paramount.   He describes his therapeutic approach as supportive. 6-Techniques used in practice There are many different techniques which can be applied for each patient’s specific requirements in medicine and dentistry, most of which will firstly require the patient to be in a trance like state or under ‘hypnosis’ where the patient is thought to be more open to suggestion.   â€Å"The brain seen in a hypnotic state is quite different from that seen in normal waking or sleeping.† [14] Carter,R (1998).   Smilar studies have also shown that there is increased activity in the brain during hypnosis which can help patients with heightened mental imagery.   A study by R.J. Croft suggests when under hypnosis a patient is able to dissociate and focus internally instead of on the pain they may otherwise experience. [15] R.J. Croft (2002). 6.1 Hypnosis:   Before looking at the techniques which can be used in medicine and dentistry we must look at how the therapist can prepare their patient to enter this heightened state of awareness.   Described below is the basic backbone of what is required when treating a patient using hypnosis however each of these steps will be described in more depth. Prepare the patient. The induction of the hypnotic state or trance. Deepening of the above. Therapy, namely suggestions and imagery-based techniques. Alerting Posthypnosis discussion. The use of self-hypnosis by the patient between sessions. [8] John Hartland, 2002. When preparing the patient is not possible in many situations to completely eliminate noise and distractions, especially in medicine and dentistry, but this need not pose a problem.   The main point to remember when preparing the setting is that the patient is comfortable.   This can be achieved by providing a chair or somewhere to lie down if appropriate and making sure the temperature is comfortable.   It is important that the patient feels relaxed and at ease with the therapist.   The therapeutic allience can be a very important part of the treatment in alleviating pain [16] Shapiro 1964.   Carl Rogers’s supportive approach could be used for this purpose. The induction and deepening can be achieved through a series of instructions and suggestions which will help the patient to enter a trance like experience.   There are many different ways to achieve this, for example using the Braid technique described in section 3.3 or another example is using Erickson’s handshake induction mentioned earlier in section 5.3.   The handshake induction is a confusion technique where the therapist begins to shake hands with the patient then interrupts the flow of the handshake in some way.   If the handshake continues to develop in a way which is out-of-keeping with expectations, a simple, non-verbal trance is created, which may then be reinforced or utilized by the therapist. All these responses happen naturally and automatically without telling the subject to consciously focus on an idea. For the purpose of medical and dental procedures, to help the patient undergo uncomfortable or anxiety provoking treatments, the use of distraction (section 6.?) and relaxing imagery (section xxx) can be extremely useful.   These techniques may also help the patient tolerate pain.   The induction and deepening is thought to enhance the patient’s responsiveness to the suggestions which will follow in the next stage, which is the therapy.   To ensure the patient is in a trance like state the therapist may ask for a signal off the patient and use an ideomotor response to get the patient to raise a finger.   This will show the patient is ready for the next stage (Please refer to section 6.2 – 6.? For techniques used during therapy). When alerting the patient suggestions of wakefulness and mental alertness are given.   This is also a good time for a post hypnotic suggestion, in the case of dentistry the therapist could say â€Å"You will find that in the future every time you experience these procedures you will become even more easily relaxed, even more quickly than this time, and into an even deeper state of relaxation.†Ã‚   The patient is then asked to be fully alert of their surroundings and to open their eyes (if shut), this can be achieved by counting the patient up or down suggesting increased awareness with each count. Once the patient is alert again this is when the therapist can discuss with the patient how they feel and make a plan for future sessions.   Time should always be given for the patient to adjust back to their surroundings, awaken all their senses and discuss any worries they may have had about their session.   The therapist may wish even at this stage to include some positive suggestions.   Before concluding the session self hypnosis can be taught to the patient for help between treatments which will also go towards helping the patient relax faster at future sessions.   A CD can also be given for use in between treatments to reinforce suggestions made. The following chapters will describe some of the techniques which can be applied in practice to control pain for medical and dental procedures.   The patient would firstly go through all the preliminaries described above, with the technique itself being integrated into the ‘therapy’ stage. 6.2 Suggestion:   Much of the practice of hypnosis entails giving suggestions directly or indirectly which will promote the desired change, an example of this is saying â€Å"Gradually you are feeling the pain easing away, as it is becoming more and more comfortable† or for a post-hypnotic suggestion and example would be â€Å"After your operation, you will feel stronger each day; any discomfort you feel will not really bother you, and you will have little bleeding.† [13] John Hartland, 2002.   Ego-strengthening is always used during therapy which is achieved by repeating positive suggestions (similar to positive reinforcement descibed in section 4.2) to the patient to reinforce any progress being made and to enhance feelings of self confidence and self worth.   This will give the patient the feelings they have the strength and resources to deal with the situation they are in now and after therapy.    Imagery NLP Anchoring 6.3 Paradoxical injunction: Hypnotic imagery (section 6.?) is widely used in pain management – particularly for longer-term pain conditions. One approach is to ask the client in hypnosis to create an image of a scale or dial (or something similar) going from 1-10 to represent their current experience of pain. It is then possible to suggest that they use the dial to ‘turn the pain down’.   If the client increases the pain then a reassuring suggestion could be given that if you can control the pain in one direction then you can also control it in the other to lesson the pain. 6.4 Distraction: Distraction techniques, similar to Erickson’s ‘confusion’   are often used in medicine and dentistry while performing uncomfortable procedures, however, for the purpose of hypnosis, imagery is again utilised.   The client is to engage their attention on something which appeals to them therefore distracting their attention from the pain. 6.5 Time distortion: Direct suggestions can be given during hypnosis to condense the experience of time if experiencing pain.   An example of this would be to say to the client ‘1 minute seems to pass as fast as a second’.   An example of when this could be used is in minor surgery when a procedure is being preformed without anaesthetic.   This technique would be used alongside relaxation and distraction techniques.   This could also be useful in a post-hypnotic suggestion to alter the patient’s memory of how long the actual procedure took. 6.6 Hypnotic suggestion for pain releif: This can be coupled with suitable imagery to give sensations of numbness and insensitivity.  Ã‚   A technique called ‘hand analgesia’ can be used in minor surgical, medical and dental procedures and also in childbirth.   The therapist simply suggests a feeling of coolness then numbness in the hand and the patient can then apply this feeling to the necessary part of the body.   Imagery techniques can also be used to create a metaphorical or symbolic image of the pain which can then be modified to experience pain relief.   One example of how this can be used is if a patient experienced arthritic pain they may imagine this as ‘grating cogwheels’, an image which can be helped by ‘oiling the cogwheels’ helping to relieve the pain. 6.7 Displacement: Peripheral pain can often be more bearable than centrally located pain therefore a suggestion can be made that the pain is located in another part of the body.   Reinterpretation is another technique similar to this where the patient can either imagine the pain is being caused by a positive activity, possibly sport, or they can convert the experience of pain to something more pleasurable like warmth. 6.8 Dissociation: In some patients this occurs naturally as a defense technique for pain such as in severe widespread pain or cardiac resuscitation where the patient may have an out-of-body experience.   Suggestion can be used by the therapist so the patient can imagine the pain is being separated from the part affected, perhaps to another part of the room, or even the affected part itself is separated. 6.9 Systematic desensitisation:   Systematic desensitisation, used primarily to treat phobias related to one particular issue, is also a simple process whose effectiveness depends on practice. Essentially you create an anxiety hierarchy (a graded list of anxiety-provoking items) and then proceed to pair each item with the feeling of being deeply relaxed. Eventually this training process allows you to remain relaxed even when thinking about the anxiety-provoking situation. Finally, you learn to confront the real situation while remaining calm and relaxed. 7-The application of hypno-psychotherapy in medicine and dentistry Pain relief is one of the main ways patients can benefit from hypno-psychotherapy techniques in medical and dental procedures.   Neuro-physiological work has shown if subjects are asked to imagine pain increasing or decreasing, the anterior cingulate cortex which registers pain changes accordingly whereas the somatosensory area which registers the sensory component, is unchanged [6] Rainville et al 1997.   Differing from these results studies have also shown that highly susceptible subjects who can relieve themselves from all perception of pain appear to be able to diminish the sensory component by absorbing themselves in some other cognitive activity.   [7] Crawford, 1994.   The other main way these techniques can benefit patients is through the reduction in anxiety throughout many procedures.   Described below are some of the many procedures where hypno-psychotherapy techniques are applied in medicine and dentistry.    7.1 Treatment in surgery: Uncomfortable minor surgical procedures where pain releif can be aided through hypnotherapeutic techniques include injections, blood taking, stitching and their removal, opthalmic surgery, dressing of burns, removal of drain tubes and many more.   Entire operations have been reported where hypnosis was the only method of analgesia, however, the main use is in facilitating major surgery and general anaesthesia.   Applications include relaxing the patient in the preoperative period, thus reducing preoperative sedation, muscle relaxants, and general anaestetic requirements and facilitating intubation. [9] Kessler, 1997.   Also with the use of positive suggestion the patient is instilled with thoughts of a successful outcome leading to reduction in post-operative pain and anxiety and need for chemical pain relief. Techniques have also been successful for the control of blood loss.   There are many metaphors which can be used for this, for example, blood vessels being tied with a ‘magic thread’. 7.2 Treatment for cancer patients:   There are many ways in which Hypno-psychotherapy techniques can help cancer patients.   General relaxation, the control of negative emotions and the sense of control over the disease can be achieved using techniques such as self hypnosis and ego strengthening.   Chemotherapy and radiotherapy can often take several months before completion of treatment, by enhancing future rehearsal the therapist can replace the any negative thoughts about their illness with a positive future outlook of their lifestyle.   Similar to its use in general surgery, techniques can be used to alter the patients state of mind pre and post-operatively and help with pain relief. 7.3 Treatment in obstetrics and gynaecology:   Hypno-psychotherapy techniques can be used before pregnancy using relaxation techniques to help with infertility treatment, during pregnancy using ego-strengthening, self hypnosis, imagery and relaxation to help with morning sickness, hypertension and premature labour or miscarriage caused by anxiety, and after pregnancy to help with bonding with the baby and post natal depression. Anxiety during pregnancy can affect blood flow and fetal stress and can lead to complications such as pre-eclampsia, forceps delivery, prolonged labour, clinical fetal distress and primary postpartum hemorrhage [10] Crandon 1979.   It is not only reducing stress and anxiety however which can help during pregnancy, analgesia in childbirth using hypnotherapy can be used which reduces and can sometimes even remove the need for chemical analgesia and other medication which can be potentially harmfull to both mother and baby.   Methods which can be used are ‘hand analgesia’, the use of imagery, or dissociation which has been previously mentioned in section 6.   Some painful gynaecological conditions may also be helped by hypnotic pain management techniques such as dysmenorrhoea, endometriosis, vulvodynia and idiopathic pelvic pains. 7.4 Treatment in dentistry:   Hypnosis has been used in the dental industry as far back as the 19th century when John Elliotson (section 3.1) used mesmeric passes for analgesia for many surgical procedures.   As mentioned earlier pain management and reduction of anxiety are the main advantages to using these techniques, however in dentistry the treatment of anxiety is extremely important.   This is one of the main problems in dental surgery and not surprisingly one adult in three has a moderate to severe fear of dental procedures [11] British Dental Association 1995. Techniques commonly used by dentists are relaxation (combined with anchoring), imagery, distraction, ego-strengthening and in some cases self hypnosis to aid future treatments.   Hypnoanalgesia can be achieved similar to the way it can in childbirth by using the hand analgesia technique (section 6.5) where this can not only be successful giving a numbing sensation in the required area but can also demonstrate to the patient that the technique works, which will in turn leave them more open to suggestion.   Desensitisation (MAKE SURE ITS IN!!) can also be extremely successful if used building up to the treatment.   Control of bleeding can sometimes be achieved by direct suggestions of ‘less bleeding’ or ‘the ice cold sensation is consticting blood vessels’.   The most important technique to include in hypnosis and dental surgery is to give the patient control over the treatment they are being given and this can be achieved by using a signal such as rai sing the hand or finger similar to the ideomotor response mentioned in section 6, so the patient can stop the procedure immediately if need be.   Dental phobias can often stem from a bad experience in the dental surgery [12] Ãâ€"st 1985, or from hearing horror stories as children, or from deeper routed experiences where psychodynamic approaches can be of great use. 8-Conclusion    8.1 Modern day acceptability:   In 1955, the Brittish Medical Association was sufficiently interested in hypnosis to set up an enquiry, the second one in its history (the first being in 1892), which reported favourably on hypnosis as a therapeutic medium, even recommending that hypnosis should be taught at medical schools and on courses for psychiatrists, and possibly anaesthetists and obstetricians [5] John Hartland, 2002.   This was followed in 1958 by the American Psychological Association forming a specialty in hypnosis and establishing a certifying board of examiners in both clinical and experimental hypnosis.   At a formal meeting of the American Medical Association (AMA) in 1959, hypnosis was granted official status of an adjunctive tool.   Also, in 1961, the AMA recommended that medical professionals receive 144 hours of training in hypnotherapy.   Hypnosis has become represented by numerous professional organizations and leading national and international journals have been established for publishi ng research. A committee commissioned by the British Medical Association formally concluded that: In addition to the treatment of psychiatric disabilities, there is a place for hypnotism in the production of anaesthesia or analgesia for surgical and dental operations, and in suitable subjects it is an effective method of relieving pain in childbirth without altering the normal course of labour. [17] (BMA, Medical use of hypnotism’, BMJ, 1955, vol. I, 190-193) 8.2 Advantages and disadvantages:   8.3 Future possibilities:   For conclusion see page 363 in Hartland. For advantages and disadvantages see pages 390-391.   Also the case study on page 403. Reference: 1. Mesmer, Franz (1980). Mesmerism. Los Altos: W. Kaufman 2. British Medical Surgical Journal (1846)35:   Page 542. 3. Bramwell (1910) Hypnotism and treatment by suggestion.   Page 203. 4. Watson, J B (1931) Behaviourism.   London:   Kegan Paul.   Page 104. 5. Hartland, John (2002) Hartland’s Medical and Dental Hypnosis.   Fourth edition. Page 14. 6. Rainville P, Duncan G H, Price D D et al (1997) affect encoded in human anterior cingulated but not somatosensory cortex.   Science 277:   Pages 968-971. 7.   Crawford H J (1994) Brain dynamics and hypnosis:   Attentional and disattentional processes.   International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 42:   Pages 204-232. 8.   John (2002) Hartland’s Medical and Dental Hypnosis.   Fourth edition. Page 61. 9.   Kessler R (1997) The consequences of individual differences in preparation for surgery and invasive medical procedures.   Hypnosis:   Swedish Journal for Hypnosis in Psychotherapy and Psychodynamic Disorders 24:   Pages 181-192. 10.   Crandon A (1979)   Maternal anxiety and obstetric complications.   Journal of Psychosomatic Research 23:   Pages   109-111 11.   British Dental Association 1995 Dental Phobia.   Fact File, June.   British Dental Association, 64 Wimpole Street, London WIM 8A. 12.   Ãâ€"st L G 1985 Mode of acquisition of phobias.   Acta Universitatis Uppsaliensis (Abstracts of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Medicine) 529: 1-45 13.   John (2002) Hartland’s Medical and Dental Hypnosis.   Fourth edition. Page 84. 14.   Carter R (1998) Mapping The Mind. Phoenix. London. Page 318. 15.   Croft, R.J., Williams, J.D., Haenschel, C. and Gruzelier, J.H.,(2002) Pain perception, hypnosis and 40 Hz oscillations.   International journal of Psychophysiology.   Vol. 46 Issue 2.   Pages 101-108. 16.   Shapiro (1964) Page 134   xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx get proper ref off diss by Karen H!! 17.   BMA, Medical use of hypnotism, BMJ, 1955, vol. I.   Pages 190-193.

Economic Reasons for Legalizing Marijuana

Economic Reasons for Legalizing Marijuana The war on drugs- no matter how you feel about it- is undoubtedly expensive. A great deal of resources go into catching those who buy and sell illegal drugs, prosecuting them in court, and housing them in jail. Critics of the war on drugs believe these costs are especially exorbitant when it comes to marijuana, a substance that is widely used and, according to numerous scientists, no more harmful than legal drugs such as tobacco and alcohol. Theres another cost to the war on drugs, too- the revenue lost by governments that cannot collect taxes on the sale of illegal drugs. In a 2010 study for the Fraser Institute, economist Stephen T. Easton attempted to calculate how much tax revenue the Canadian government could gain by legalizing marijuana. In 2018, for many of the reasons Easton outlined in his study, Canada passed the Cannabis Act, which legalized the adult use of recreational marijuana. Revenue From Marijuana Sales Eastons study estimated that the average price of 0.5 grams (a unit) of marijuana sold for $8.60 on the black market, while its cost of production was only $1.70. In a free market, a $6.90 profit for a unit of marijuana would not last for long. Entrepreneurs noticing the great profits to be made in the marijuana market would start their own grow operations, increasing the supply of marijuana, which would cause the street price of the drug to fall to a level much closer to the cost of production. Of course, this doesnt happen because the product is illegal; the prospect of jail time deters many entrepreneurs and the occasional drug bust ensures that the supply stays relatively low. We can consider much of this $6.90 per unit of marijuana profit a risk-premium for participating in the underground economy. Before Canada legalized cannabis, this risk premium was making a lot of criminals, many of whom had ties to organized crime, very wealthy. Marijuana Taxes Easton argued that if marijuana were legalized, the excess profits produced by the risk-premium could be transferred to the government: If we substitute a tax on marijuana cigarettes equal to the difference between the local production cost and the street price people currently paythat is, transfer the revenue from the current producers and marketers (many of whom work with organized crime) to the government, leaving all other marketing and transportation issues aside we would have revenue of (say) $7 per [unit]. If you could collect on every cigarette and ignore the transportation, marketing, and advertising costs, this comes to over $2 billion on Canadian sales and substantially more from an export tax, and you forego the costs of enforcement and deploy your policing assets elsewhere. Supply and Demand One interesting thing to note from such a scheme is that the street price of marijuana stays exactly the same, so the quantity demanded should remain the same as the price is unchanged. However, its quite likely, in places where cannabis use is currently criminalized, that legalization would change the demand for marijuana. We saw that there was a risk in illegally selling marijuana, but since drug laws often target both the buyer and the seller, there is also a risk (albeit smaller) to the consumer interested in buying marijuana. Legalization would eliminate this risk, causing the demand to rise. From a public policy standpoint, this is a mixed bag: Increased marijuana use can have ill effects on the health of the population, but the increased sales bring in more revenue for the government. By legalizing marijuana, governments can have some control over how much marijuana is consumed by increasing or decreasing taxes on the product. There is a limit to this, however, as setting taxes too high will cause marijuana growers to sell on the black market to avoid excessive taxation. When considering legalizing marijuana, there are many economic, health, and social issues to analyze. Although one economic study should not be the basis for a countrys public policy decisions, Eastons research does conclusively show that there are economic benefits to the legalization of marijuana. With governments scrambling to find new sources of revenue to pay for important social objectives such as health care and education, you can expect to see more leaders exploring the idea of legalization.

Cynodictis - Facts and Figures

Cynodictis - Facts and Figures Name: Cynodictis (Greek for in-between dog); pronounced SIGH-no-DIK-tiss Habitat: Plains of North America Historical Epoch: Late Eocene-Early Oligocene (37-28 million years ago) Size and Weight: About two feet long and 5-10 pounds Diet: Meat Distinguishing Characteristics: Long, narrow muzzle; low-slung body    About Cynodictis As has happened with so many other once-obscure prehistoric animals, Cynodictis owes its current popularity to its cameo appearances on the BBC series Walking with Beasts: in one episode, this early carnivore was shown chasing away a juvenile Indricotherium, and in another, it was a quick snack for a passing Ambulocetus (not a very convincing scenario, since this walking whale wasnt much bigger than its presumed prey!) Until recently, it was widely believed that Cynodictis was the first true canid, and thus lay at the root of 30 million years of dog evolution. Today, though, its relationship to modern dogs is more dubious: Cynodictis seems to have been a close relative of Amphicyon (better known as the Bear Dog), a type of carnivore that succeeded the giant creodonts of the Eocene epoch. Whatever its ultimate classification, Cynodictis certainly behaved like a proto-dog, chasing down small, furry prey on the boundless plains of North America (and possibly digging them out of shallow burrows as well).

Marketing Is Easy to Define Outline Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Marketing Is Easy to Define - Outline Example This paper stresses that marketing is considered as a process that would help identify products or services that would entice consumers through employing strategies that utilize business development, sales and communications. In essence, it is a process that entails businesses to establish strong consumer relationships and build value towards the business' consumers. Marketing is a process utilized to determine consumer markets, satisfy them and retain them. In that regard, it is important to identify the concept of customer satisfaction. In retrospect, as a means to achieve organizational goals, a business must be able to identify the needs and wants of the target market and in accordance with this, provide customer satisfaction. Apart from establishing good relationships, creating value towards the customer, this would be beneficial towards the business as well. This paper makes a conclusion that marketing can be defined as a constructive analysis of a business' customers, competitors and a company, which would be integrated into an understanding of what segmented markets are, assessing the profitable groups, effectively positioning products and services, which is then subsequently followed on the delivering what is required in product positioning and promotion. In effectively positioning a product, a marketing strategy must be employed. Through implementing appropriate brand and advertising techniques by means of various communication tools and instruments, marketing measures can be delivered.

Starbucks and Its Difficulties During the Time of Economic Hardship Case Study

Starbucks and Its Difficulties During the Time of Economic Hardship - Case Study Example Branded firms have their unique approaches to improving their market reach, brand image of the product, and maintain the quality standard of the product. Keeping in view the rapid rate of their expansion and growth at multiple locations these companies manipulated their marketing strategy according to the location since different locations offered different marketing environment (Larson. 2008). These companies focused more on its quality standard by critically handling the entire process involved from the purchase of raw materials till it's possession by its end user. These companies took a great care of each and every step to avoid compromising the quality standard of their products. In case of Starbucks Corporation, the firm created a coffee culture and also provided an atmosphere of relaxation for their customers who helped them in bringing the concept of â€Å"third place† where the first and second places were considered to be the home and office respectively (Larson, R. (2008). Many efforts are made by these companies under its strategic approach towards marketing to gain their customers’ trust and offer a value-based service to their customers. The companies also face problems due to variations in their customer group which varies with the location. Under such circumstances, these companies faced challenges which were mainly of following types, what mode should be used by the company to exist in the international market, how they should design their product offering to their customers keeping in mind the variations among the behavior of customer group. Along with it, another major challenge for such companies was to compete with other brands of the same industry serving globally to their customers. The marketing strategies adopted by Starbucks Corporation worked like a magnet which drove their customers to do things as per the company’s expectation (Carroll. 2007). A brand name in watchmaking industry is Maurice Lacroix which is famo us for its luxurious watches adopted strategy to promote their product and also form the alliance with a brand name in movies production house Dream Works for their film named Time Machine.

Contemporary issues in managment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Contemporary issues in managment - Essay Example One cannot thus separate a corporation from the community in which it operates and as such, whatever it does should be for the collective good of that communities for happiness to be achieved. A corporation in this case is itself a citizen and has an intrinsic responsibility as a social entity; that is, it should be socially responsible. This is in contradiction to economists such as Milton Friedman who viewed corporations as individual entities whose sole responsibility was to make profits. Corporate social responsibility (CSR) was traditionally associated with philanthropy and charity but later came to be associated with stakeholder interests. Carroll and Shabana consider it a post-World War II phenomenon defined as the â€Å"economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic expectations that a society has of organisations at a given point in time† (2010: 89). For McGuire (1963), CSR extends beyond those four expectations such as reputation and company image. Whatever the case, suc cess of CSR depends on commitment from senior management as well as low-level staff and its implementation varies from company to company depending on its context. The aim of this paper is to critically discuss and evaluate an environmental issue that an organisation addresses using the framework presented by Wood (1991). In this case, the orgnisation to be discussed is Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. The first section will give a brief background of the organisation. The Second section will be a brief background of CSR. Third section will discuss the business case for CSR followed by analysis of the environmental issue using the corporate social performance model and finally, a brief summary will be given. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc is the world’s number one retailer with 100 million U.S. shoppers a week visiting their stores. It was founded in 1962 with a commitment to make a difference in the lives of its customers. It has 11,000 stores with 71 banners in 27 countries and e-commerce in

Take home exam. 3 cases not to be more then 6 total pages Essay

Take home exam. 3 cases not to be more then 6 total pages - Essay Example 10 (par. 1)2, of the Constitution.3 The Court’s majority opinion (delivered by Chief Justice Taney) found for the defendants (Warren Bridge proprietors). After first citing the relevant language in Court’s prior holding in Satterlee v. Matthewson (27 U.S. 380, 1829)—â€Å"If the State law is said to be retrospective, be it so. But retrospective laws which do not impair the obligation of contracts or partake of the character of ex post facto laws are not condemned or forbidden by any part of the instrument [Constitution of the United States] (Id., at 413)†Ã¢â‚¬â€and admitting quite candidly that the free passage character of the Warren Bridge had rendered the Charles River Bridge franchise of no value, stated that nonetheless the complainants’ saw â€Å"None of the faculties or franchises granted to that corporation †¦ revoked by the Legislature, and its right to take tolls granted by the charter remains unaltered [36 U.S. 430, at 549].† Of greater import than the specifics of the case in question was the thinking of the Court on the implications of a decision in favor of the complainants. Chief Justice Taney addressed these in a series of rhetorical questions and answers. â€Å"And what would be the fruits of this doctrine of implied contracts on the part of the states and of property in a line of travel by a corporation if it were now sanctioned by the Court? To what results would it lead us to? If it is to be found in the charter to this bridge, the same process of reasoning must discover it in the various acts which have been passed within the last forty years for turnpike companies. And what is to be the extent of the privileges of exclusion on the different sides of the road†¦ The millions of property which have been invested in railroads and canals upon lines of travel will be put in jeopardy [Id., at 552].† Justice Story argued in dissent. While he detailed a number of points at

Observation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

Observation - Essay Example However, there are means and ways put in place to aid in teaching this group of students. This paper is going to address the education of students with emotional and behavioral disorders, physical abilities, health impairments and traumatic brain injury. Moreover; it is going to describe the type of teaching strategies for this group and how to nurture their self esteem and self advocacy skills. Moreover, this paper is going to explain how regular students can be aided into accepting, understanding and respecting their colleagues and how to respond to their needs appropriately. In order to teach special needs student’s teachers need researched, evidence based teaching strategies to be sure of what they are giving to their students. Research and evidence based strategies can be defined as an intervention program that has been researched over and over and has positively yielded consistent results when tested. There are a variety of research evidence based teaching strategies that teachers can use. The first teaching strategy is class wide peer tutoring (Cullinan, 2007). This strategy is meant to teach students who are at different levels with the rest and those who have different needs but are in the same class. Class wide peer tutoring stipulates that after a class lecture by the teacher, the students must then bond together to evaluate and find out if they have all got the information together and in the same manner. Methods here include pairing of students that is regular students are paired with a special needs student, immediate correction of errors; inter class competition and frequent spontaneous tests. This will ensure that the special needs students are at par with the regular students. This method is very effective in math since one method in math is sometimes difficult to understand and group work exposes different methods. The second researched teaching strategy is the Direct Instruction, DI (Cullinan, 2007). This method involves teaching of

Take home exam. 3 cases not to be more then 6 total pages Essay

Take home exam. 3 cases not to be more then 6 total pages - Essay Example 10 (par. 1)2, of the Constitution.3 The Court’s majority opinion (delivered by Chief Justice Taney) found for the defendants (Warren Bridge proprietors). After first citing the relevant language in Court’s prior holding in Satterlee v. Matthewson (27 U.S. 380, 1829)—â€Å"If the State law is said to be retrospective, be it so. But retrospective laws which do not impair the obligation of contracts or partake of the character of ex post facto laws are not condemned or forbidden by any part of the instrument [Constitution of the United States] (Id., at 413)†Ã¢â‚¬â€and admitting quite candidly that the free passage character of the Warren Bridge had rendered the Charles River Bridge franchise of no value, stated that nonetheless the complainants’ saw â€Å"None of the faculties or franchises granted to that corporation †¦ revoked by the Legislature, and its right to take tolls granted by the charter remains unaltered [36 U.S. 430, at 549].† Of greater import than the specifics of the case in question was the thinking of the Court on the implications of a decision in favor of the complainants. Chief Justice Taney addressed these in a series of rhetorical questions and answers. â€Å"And what would be the fruits of this doctrine of implied contracts on the part of the states and of property in a line of travel by a corporation if it were now sanctioned by the Court? To what results would it lead us to? If it is to be found in the charter to this bridge, the same process of reasoning must discover it in the various acts which have been passed within the last forty years for turnpike companies. And what is to be the extent of the privileges of exclusion on the different sides of the road†¦ The millions of property which have been invested in railroads and canals upon lines of travel will be put in jeopardy [Id., at 552].† Justice Story argued in dissent. While he detailed a number of points at

Arab Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Arab Culture - Essay Example Arabic culture traces its roots from the Arabian Peninsula next to the Sabaens where they ended up migrating the near east that consists of the ancient cities of Mesopotamia and Lavant. In order to understand better the Arabic culture, it is important to look at several key factors that define the great culture. Language factors, religious viewpoint and practices, fashion and architecture are some vital areas that shape the great Arabic culture. My essay analyses the Arab culture in depth looking at the very important factors that drives its existence. Arabic language having a close relation to Aramaic and Hebrew is evidently the chief language in the Semitic category of Afro-Asiatic language (Young). All the Arabian nations including some Islamic communities have adopted the Arabic language as their own making it the vernacular language and the most holy in their life. Qur’an, the Islamic holy book, written in Arabic shows this great culture’s contribution to the Islamic religion where they find it difficult to translate it into any other language and fail to lose the teachings of the Holy book. Classical Arabic is the name given to the language that is used in The Holy Qur’an, having some distinction from the modern day Arabic language. The book contains chapters and verses written in various parables, verses and narratives that are an inspiration by Allah. This holy book is the major source of inspiration and teachings among the Islam religion, guiding their morals and behavior in the larger society. Most Arabs are Muslims embracing the Islamic religion. Islam being the second most popular world religion Christianity coming first is a monotheist type of religion believing in the existence of one God whom they refer to as Allah (Mikenola). The scriptures that govern the Islamic religion are all included in the holy Qur’an that was revealed to the Muslim faith through their prophet Muhammad.

Comparative policing systems Essay Example for Free

Comparative policing systems Essay Introduction Policing is not a recent issue in terms which duty of state as protecting both public and state still remains as a concept to focus on, yet, it is current enough to remember and to consider again. In this comparative study, policing systems of United Kingdom, Turkey and France will be controversially discussed in terms of policing related to its legitimacy, its structure, and its function. In the first section, the concepts of legitimacy, structure, and function will be defined. Afterwards, British policing system will be examined in terms of these three conceptions. Following British system, Turkish policing system which has been remarkably adapted to new policing concepts despite the fact that there are more to deal with will be following subject. Then, lastly, French system which has effectively been a model for some countries will be analyzed so as to understand The Continental Model. After analyzing three countries, the similarities and differences between British and The Continental System will be focused on, more particularly within a proposition that British Policing leads the way. Policing: Legitimacy, Structure, and Function Modern police was often seen as an instrument of progress, consistent with the idea of free enterprise, academic freedom, constitutional protection against arbitrary government (Liang, 2002, p: 4). Although there has been a common acceptance of policing recently, as Liang stated, there are different police systems all over the world. In order to be able to analyze and compare police systems, there are three terms by the help of which policing in different societies can be examined; legitimacy, structure, and function. In his early study, Bayley asserts that three characteristics of the police contemporarily exist in todays world and these as dichotomous are public/private, specialized/no specialized, professional/nonprofessional. Being public/private oriented refers to the nature of the police agency and can easily be confused with community authorization, specialization for a police agency, in opposite terms of that unspecialized police force is authorized to use force but do many other things as well, concentres on the application of force, and professionalism refers to explicit preparation to perform the unique police function (Bayley, 1990, p: 11-13). Using this triple explanation, Bayley originally emphasizes on legitimacy, structure and function of policing. Similarly, Mawby attempts to compare different police systems according to legitimacy, structure, and function. Moreover, he defines these terms. Legitimacy implies that the police are granted some degree of monopoly within society by those with the power to so authorize, be they an elite within the society, an occupying power, or the community as a whole.(1990, p: 3). Structure means specialization/non specialization, and function implies that the role of the police is concentrated on the maintenance of law and order prevention and detection of offences. Nevertheless, this is not only about these fixed concepts, but also the balance between law and order, or prevention and detection and being service-related, administrative, or concerned with political control (Mawby, 1990). United Kingdom; Policing System Police systems in England and Wales prior to the 19th century are portrayed private, non-professional, and unspecialized by authors such as Critchley (1978) and Radzinowicz (1956a). After creation of new police, The Metropolitan Police Force (1829), Londons first centralized, uniformed, wholly professional, centrally-controlled police force (Reynolds, 1998) and similar forces were established in other urban and rural areas between 1835 and 1888, so the nineteenth century was a breakpoint. After a dynamic duration in 20th century, now there are currently 43 police forces in England and Wales employing over 233,000 personnel, over 140,000 police officers, nearly 78,000 police staff and over 15,600 Police Community Support Officers. Additionally, there are currently in excess of 14,500 volunteer police officers known as Special Constables in England and Wales (Home Office, 2009). The 51 police forces those were over 100 prior to the Police Act of 1964 in England, Wales, and Scotland each headed by a Chief Constable who is accountable to a Police Authority (Tupman and Tupman, 1999). In Scotland, there are 8 constabularies corresponding to the 8 former regional governments of Scotland. Initially, in terms of function, the polices role is crime control and maintenance public order, more specifically crime prevention through uniformed patrol while, at the same time, fulfilling a welfare and service order public (Mawby, 2008). Secondly, in terms of structure, there is a balance between local and central control and organization. The modern police system in England and Wales is traced back to the early nineteenth century, this idea is reinforced by Bayley in such a way that he states that The modern English police constable is medieval Tythingman1, still acting under royal authority but now serving at public expense in a chosen career (1990, p: 29). The 1962 Royal Commission on the Police identified the protection of local police forces autonomy through the institution of the three partite structure of accountability: individual chief constables, police authorities and central government claims Mawby in his study dedicated to compare policing systems all over the world (2008). From a more general perspective, in UK structure is decentralized compared to continental system, and there are local police forces with the help of these information, but Northern Ireland has a different system based on colonial system (Mawby, 1992). It is possible, in terms of structure, to say that police is decentralized, unarmed, and civilian force (Mawby, 1990). Afterwards, in terms of legitimacy there is a tendency to do what public want. It is possible to see on the green paper that the police are in attempts to improve the connection between public and the police: This Green Paper sets out proposals for a new policing pledge which will be developed in partnership between the police and local people (Green Paper, July 2008). In his recent study, Mawby states that there at least four attempts to allay public concern by providing public access to local police management: Crime and Disorder Reduction Partnerships (CDRPs), the formation of police consultative committees, the establishment of lay visitors schemes, and the introduction of Independent Advisory Groups to monitor police racism following the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry (Mawby, 2008, p: 21). Turkey; Policing System The history of the police in Turkey derives from Ottoman Empire in 19th century like public administration through adapting to French prefecture model (Mercedes and Newburn, 2008, p: 34). Moreover, Turkish civilian administration system is influenced by the French civilian administration system and its domestic security approach (Celador, Gemma Collantes et al 2008). Security function is provided by both public and private sector, and there are three public law enforcement institutions: the police, the jandarma (gendarmerie) and the coast guard command. The jandarma and the coast guard command are responsible to the Minister of Interior as well as the police; yet, the jandarma and the coast guard command are military institutions. In terms of promotions, appointments, personnel administration, disciplinary and judiciary procedures, the jandarma corps is located within the military structure headed by the Office of the Chief of General Staff, who, in turn, responds to the Office of the Prime Minister, instead of to the Ministry of National Defence. Additionally, the national police force and the jandarma are different in terms of their respective jurisdictions and responsibilities vis-à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½-vis the civilian government authorities (Celador, Gemma Collantes et al 2008, p: 8). Jurisdiction of the police geographically differs from the jandarmas jurisdiction; the police provide security in urban areas rather whereas the jandarma are responsible for rural areas. In terms of structure, the police force is centralized, thus, compared to western central administration models, this structure is excessively central (Cerrah, 2005).In terms of function, there is obviously a higher number of the jandarma compared to the police, although urban areas contain more population than rural areas. There are some 193,000 police whereas the jandarma are between 280,000 and 300,000 (Mercedes and Newburn, 2008). According to Mercedes and Newburns study which is one of the last studies about Turkey and policing system, number of the jandarma is highly more than the polices. There are several reasons but, eventually, as a result of disproportional allocation, the priority is not welfare but the continuity of order in terms of administrative and political tasks in addition to crime prevention. Last of all, in terms of legitimacy, police legitimacy derives from law rather than public. After legislation through the EU twinning projects, for example with amendments and modifications on Law on Powers and Tasks of Police (1936), the government has aimed at changing consideration of police as a service rather than power. Nevertheless, in practice, this is not easily possible. Despite all the time that has passed since then, the Turkish police organisation has been unable to establish systemic institutional civilian participation and a satisfactory control mechanism. On both national and regional level, security policies and practices are only run and supervised by appointed civilian administration authorities and police administrators. claims Cerrah (2005) and as he adds the police still have to do more to be more accountable. Unless the police are more accountable and open to be controlled by civilian mechanism, legitimacy of the police will be discussed as well as its function. However, community policing is a new issue in Turkey with a pilot practicing in ten big cities including Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, and Bursa (Directorate General of Security, 2009). There is a tendency to be more people-oriented. France; Policing System French police system is arguably the first modern system in Europe whereas The London Metropolitan Police is known to be the first modern police (Mawby 1990, p: 34, Bowden, 1978, p: 140). Bowden also adds that 615 is the year first peace and police existed in France, but, ironically, French is the nation who has frequently experienced the discontinuity in a nations political life despite the fact that they developed the most sophisticated police in Europe (1978). The police function in France is rooted to Roman law tradition, and since the French Revolution (1789), historically, there are significant processes but it is not going to be discussed because of lack of space. Today, police system in French can be analyzed through being distinguished as the police nationale and gendarmerie nationale. The gendarmerie are accountable to three different authorities: to Minister of Justice for criminal investigations, to the Ministry of Interior for public order, or administrative matters, and to the Ministry of Defence for all other aspects of their work whereas the police nationale are responsible to the Minister of Justice for criminal investigations, and to the Ministry of Interior for public order, or administrative matters (Hodgson, 2005). According to Hodgsons account, which compares French criminal justice system to British systems and includes an extensive investigation, the police nationale is composed of some 120,000 officers now according to Interpol 126,000 whereas the Gendarmerie comprises some 85,000 officers now according to Interpol 90,000 (2009) (2005). Moreover, there are some 3000 small municipal police forces. In terms of structure French police system is centralized as it is seen from this portray, the police forces are armed and not exactly- militaristic. France is typically an example of continental European system and in terms of function police system in France is putting emphasises on administrative and political tasks rather than welfare (Mawby, 2008, p: 22). As a consequence of being centrally organized, France has more centralized policing system with two main forces the police nationale and the gendarmerie compared to British policing system and less centralized compared to Turkish police system. Compared with UK, the availability of other community initiatives involving polis-public cooperation such as neighbourhood watch or volunteer police auxiliaries are relatively unknown (Mawby, 1990). As a continental European country, in terms of legitimacy the police and the gendarmerie are closely tied to government rather than public or law. United Kingdom (Excluding Northern Ireland) Turkey France Legitimacy Local government Central government Central government Function Welfare Crime prevention, emphasis on administrative tasks Crime prevention, emphasis on administrative tasks Structure Decentralized Centralized (More excessively) Centralized It is possible to infer from whole information that United Kingdom, excluding Northern Ireland, has community-oriented policing system where as France and Turkey have continental and highly centralized and government oriented policing systems. Mawby who has a range of comparative police studies since early 1990s sees continental police systems in the past as being distinguished in terms of their lack of accountability, being directly responsible to the head of state, and he adds in another study that While this less easily reconciled with the liberal democracies of post-war Europe, it is still the case that public accountability is more restricted in countries where the police are more centralized and militaristic (2008, p: 23). Also in Turkey, more recently, with the increased quality of the police training and education, the rising numbers of commissioners and officers receiving masters and doctorates (some on topics including human rights law, technologically more advanced crime-fighting methods, etc.) and the positive impact of EU twinning projects, a younger reformist wing seems to have emerged within the police. This wing is also psychologically supported by civil societal demands for the establishment of more professional, accountable and transparent police structures. (Celador, Gemma Collantes et al, 2008, p: 9) From a historical perspective; between 1804 and 1810 in France, during Napoleons dictatorship Fouchà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ was his strong right arm and was commanding French police. Fouchà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½, Duc dOtranto, had an army consisting of spies and agent provocateurs spreading insidious terror and repression throughout France (Manwaring-White, 1993). As Manwaring-White states, there was a very real fear in Britain that any sort police force like in France would result the same fearful invasion of privacy and liberty. On the other, while Robert peel was introducing his Metropolis Police Improvement Bill, he had figures to show a population increase of 19 per cent in London and Middlesex, but an increase in crime of 55 per cent between the periods of seven years from 1811 to 1818 and from 1821-1828 (Emsley, 1991). The bill passed through the parliament and The Metropolitan Police of London was established contrast to French militaristic system. However, contentiously, despite the horror of the Fouchà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ regime in France, the British government did employ spies and agents to try and uncover hints of treasonable activity or political unrest and despite anathema to French style spies, a detective department was reorganised in Scotland in 1842 (Manwaring-White, 1993). There several attempts contrast to thought because of which the Met was established. Furthermore, during the 70s the developments in police riot brought the English police closer in their riot tactics and equipments, yet, unlike continental neighbours, employers were not specialized riot squads (Emsley, 1991). Finally, the men, responsible for creation the English police during the 19th century, wanted to restrict the political and military nature of the new police, but Emsley states that despite these reasons of creation of English police, the economic, political and social nature of Victorian England was instrumental in helping some people to achieve their aim (1991). By contrast with whom see centralized system as incorporating problems of non-accountability and partisanship, Mawby critically examines this idea. Firstly, one should not assume that locally, community-oriented systems are necessarily panaceas; they may incorporate problems of non-accountability, elite control and partisanship. Secondly, however, although political policing has been more a future of policing systems in countries where the police are militaristic, there is no clear relationship between the presence of one, central police system and these features. Nor is a central system necessarily incompatible with local accountability. Last of all, as illustrated in his study, the presence of absence of a single, centralized police is no more evidence of a police state than is the presence or absence of the jury system (Mawby, 1992, p: 125-126). Today, in terms of function, structure, and legitimacy, community-oriented systems are seen more advantageous, but privacy and liberty of individuals are threatened by the surveillance, bugging and file-keeping methods of modern police (Manwaring-White, 1993). Bibliography Books Bayley, David H. (1990) Patterns of Policing: A Comparative International Analysis, Rutgers University Press. Bowden, T. (1978), Beyond the Limits of Law, Harmondsworth: Penguin Cerrah, Ibrahim, Police, in Cizre, Umit (ed.), Almanac Turkey 2005: Security Sector and Democratic Oversight, Istanbul: TESEV Publications, 2006, pp. 86-99. Critchley, T.A. (1978), The History of Police in England and Wales in Mawby, Rob I. (1990), Comparative Police Issues: The British and American system in international perspective, London: Unwin Hyman. Celador, Gemma Collantes et al (2008), Fostering an EU Strategy for Security Sector Reform in the Mediterranean: Learning from Turkish and Palestinian Police Reform Experiences, EuroMeSCo Paper 66 (January 2008) Emsley, Clive (1991), the English Police, a Political and Social History, Second Edition, Addison Wesley: Longman Hin, Mercedes S and Newburn, Tim (2008) Policing Developing Democracies, Taylor Francis Hodgson, Jacqueline (2005), French Criminal Justice: A Comparative Account of the Investigation and Prosecution of Crime in France, Hart, University of Michigan Lambert, John L. (1986) Police Powers and Accountability, Taylor Francis Manwaring-White, Sarah (1983) the Policing Revolution, Police Technology, Democracy and Liberty in Britain, the Harvester Press Mawby, Rob I. (1990), Comparative Police Issues: The British and American system in international perspective, London: Unwin Hyman. Mawby, RI (1992) Comparative police systems: searching for a continental model, pp: 108-132 in K. Bottomley, T. Fowles and R. Reiner (eds.) (1992) Criminal Justice: Theory and Practice, British Criminology Conference 1991, London: British Society of Criminology. Mawby Rob I. (2008), Models of Policing, in Newburn, Tim (ed.) (2008) Handbook of Policing, 2nd Edition, Cullompton: Willan, pp: 17-46. Radzinowicz, L. (1956a), A history of English Criminal Law and its administration from 1750, Volume 1: The Movement for Reform in Mawby, Rob I. (1990), Comparative Police Issues: The British and American system in international perspective, London: Unwin Hyman. Reynolds, Elaine A. (1998), Before the Bobbies, Stanford University Press. Liang, Hsi-Huey (2002), The Rise of Modern Police and the European State System from Metternich to the Second World War, Cambridge University Press, pp: 11-13. Tupman, Bill and Tupman, Alison (1999), Policing in Europe, Intellect Books. Websites Home office (2009) About Us, available: http://police.homeoffice.gov.uk/about-us/ last accessed 18 March 2009. Directorate General of Security (2009) Community Policing, available: http://www.asayis.pol.tr/tdpyapilanmasunumu_dosyalar/frame.htm. Last accessed 18 March 2009. Interpol (2009) France: Police system, available: http://www.interpol.int/Public/Region/Europe/pjsystems/France.asp. Last accessed 18 March 2009 Additional Source Green Paper (2008), From the Neighbourhood to the National: Policing Our Communities Together, Green Paper, Home Office, July 2008 1 Tythingman was of Saxon times and he was elected by his peers in the local community and exercised wide responsibilities for all aspects of local government on heir behalf He was not , however, a royal officer, as his authority derived from the community he served rather than from the sovereign (Lambert, 1986, p: 21)